image © Phage et al. Bacteriophage Ecology Group (BEG) News
Dedicated to the ecology and evolutionary biology of the parasites of unicellular organisms (UOPs)
© Stephen T. Abedon (editor)
contents | BEG News (008) | top of page
© Phage et al. April 1, 2001 issue (volume 8)

At this site you will find . . .

1. editorial this page
2. new BEG members this page
3. new links this page
4. new features this page
5. upcoming meetings this page
6. jobs this page
7. submissions (a.k.a., stuff to read) this page
8. letters this page
9. phage image this page
10. new publications (abstracts) this page
11. acknowledgements this page
12. Bacteriophage Ecology Group elsewhere
13. comments mail to

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Editorial

Editorials should be written on subjects relevant to The Bacteriophage Ecology Group as an organization, to BEG News (either the concept or a given issue of BEG News), or the science of Bacteriophage Ecology. While my assumption is that I will be writing the bulk of these editorials, I wish to encourage as many people as possible to seek to relieve me of this duty, as often as possible. Additionally, I welcome suggestions of topics that may be addressed. Please address all correspondences to abedon.1@osu.edu or to "Editorials," Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906. Please send all submissions as Microsoft Word documents, if possible (I'll let you know if I have trouble converting other document formats), and in English.

The Best of Times, the Worst of Times

Phage biologists are accustomed to being treated as relics, hoary apostles of a classical discipline pedagogically useful but past its prime. It is thus heartening to see the burgeoning interest in bacteriophage at all levels and from so many different perspectives. Of course, there are legions of protein biochemists who suddenly have to titer M13 to monitor the enrichment cycles of their phage display libraries. Even a purely methodological interest makes them stakeholders, however marginally, in phage biology. More impressive is the wave of other scientists who have come to phage as an active research field in the pursuit of seemingly unrelated goals. Suddenly the virulence of otherwise harmless bacteria turns out to be due to pathogenesis islands, which turn out to be prophages. Indeed, phage don't just carry virulence characteristics but in fact, suddenly, it develops that major diseases like cholera and enterohemorrhagic diarrhea are fundamentally phage-borne diseases, that in a sense the bacteria are victims as much as the human hosts. Suddenly, understanding pathogenesis requires understanding the inheritance, organization and expression of phage genes. Mirabile dictu, suddenly phage ecology is discovered to have been ignored; we know more about kangaroo rats than about the "where"'s, "when"'s and "how many"'s of phage populations. We don't know where these disease-factor phages are, how they are transmitted, how they change, what makes them tick. Until study sections wake up to this, clearly our ability to analyze, understand, and predict the emergence of new infectious disease is limited.

It is not just molecular pathogenesis and epidemiologists who are scurrying for their dusty phage texts; now it's the drug companies and clinicians who have the bug as the "new" concept of phage therapy is making news and attracting investors. Ironically, there is little known about what is available to attack various pathogens, and few people have actually done phage hunts. Thus decades-old phage collections assembled in Stalin's Caucasus by contemporaries of Lysenko are now attracting U.S. government research funding.

All of this serves to bring the word phage back into play in public and general scientific discourse, which is good. Its also the best of times since the Golden Age for phage biology proper. Through the dogged efforts of a few people interested in phage per se and also, pari passu, as a result of the sequencing of so many bacterial genomes that contain multiple prophages, suddenly we have a phage genomics. Suddenly phage evolution turns out to be stunningly inventive and articulated. The momentum in phage biology extends beyond primary structure to tertiary and quaternary structure: suddenly self-assembly of phage virions has been revealed at the atomic level by focusing modern x-ray crystallography on genetically tractable bacteriophage. Suddenly, through crystallography and high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy, we have a crisp picture of the operation of a phage injection system, geared by both RNA and protein components. The best of times.

But it is also the worst of times. Few students and post-doc's are being trained in the classical traditions of phage biology. Classical phage systems are being depopulated through super-annuation; you can count the combined number of P1, fX174, and T5 labs on one hand and have fingers left over. Almost no grant proposals are being written on phage systems. In the early '90s I served on one of the NIH study sections that traditionally supported phage biology. The panel always had several phage people, as well as individuals who had been trained in the phage biology tradition. Now that same study section has about a third as many R01's to consider, the proportion of phage grants is even less, and the number of phage biologists on the panel is now exactly one.

And now comes the pitch. The professional association of phage biologists is under siege. Division M of ASM has been placed on probationary status because our membership has fallen below the minimum 150, out of 19,000 total members. We can no longer vote in the ASM council. To use an analogy very familiar to Texans, it is like being moved to the isolation chamber shortly before execution. As the 2000-1 chair, I am appealing to the phage community to help redress the situation. We need to recruit for Division M. We need past members who have let their dues lapse to renew their memberships. We need our colleagues who are doing phage biology to join ASM and select Division M as their primary division. We need to enroll graduate students as student members, to look to the future of the Division.

Division M has a lot to offer. Being a small division is not all bad; smallness means we can be cohesive and organized. Despite being less than 1% of the membership, we have influence at the top. For example, this year's General Meeting is chaired by Lucia Rothman-Denes of Division M. All this means is that new members get to be part of a small and influential group and can make an impact immediately; just come to our Division meeting at Orlando this year and see!

If you are interested in joining ASM and Division M, please check out the "HomePhage," the Division's website, at http://www.asmusa.org/division/m/M.html and the ASM membership link at http://www.asmusa.org/mbrsrc/mbr1.htm. Or contact me by phone (979-845-2087) or email (ryland@tamu.edu) and I will get you enrolled. Remember, it's the new Age of Phage. Get with the in-crowd before it becomes cool to do so.

by Ry Young, Chair, Division M (Bacteriophage), ASM

Editor's note: Don't forget to put a link to the "HomePhage" from your wed site: http://www.asmusa.org/division/m/M.html (see "New Links" below).

Editorial Archive

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New BEG Members

The BEG members list can be found at www.phage.org/beg_members.htm as well as on the BEG home page. As we add new members, these individuals will be introduced in this section. Note that, in fact, there are two ways of "joining" BEG. One, the "traditional" way, is to have your name listed on the web page and on the list server. The second, the "non-traditional" way, is to have your name only listed on the list server. The latter I refer to as "non-members" on that list. Members, e.g., individuals listed on the BEG home page, should be limited to individuals who are actively involved in science and who can serve as a phage ecology resource to interested individuals. If you have an interest in phage ecology but no real expertise in the area, then you should join as a non-member. To join as a member, please contact BEG using the following link: abedon.1@osu.edu. Include:
  • your name
  • your e-mail address
  • your snail-mail address
  • the URL of your home page (if you have one)
  • a statement of whether or not you are the principal investigator
  • a statement of your research interests (or phage ecology interests)
  • a list of your phage ecology references, if any
Note that it is preferable that you include the full reference, including the abstract, if the reference is not already present in the BEG bibliography. Responsibility of members includes keeping the information listed on the BEG members list up to date including supplying on a reasonably timely basis the full references of your new phage ecology publications. Reprints can also be sent to The Bacteriophage Ecology Group, care of Stephen Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906. To join BEG as a non-member, please contact BEG using the following link: abedon.1@osu.edu and minimally include your name and e-mail address.

Please welcome our newest members

name
(home page links)		 status e-mail address
Yun-Can AI PI lssayc
@zsu.edu.cn		 Director, Lab of Molecular Microbiolgoy and Antimicrobial Drugs, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan University, Guangzhou 510275, P R China
interests:My lab is focusing on the Phage-bacteria community ecology in the South China Sea, Pacific Ocean Coast. The coevolution of phage and pathogenic bacteria, horizontal gene transfer, effects of stress induced by antibiotics. Bacteriophages isolation and their role in gene transfer within the bacterial community, particularly pathogenicity islands. Bacteriophage genomics and evolution. (contents | BEG members | top of page)
Robert A. Goodnow PI rgoodnow
@tranquility.net		 Goodnow Microbes Lab/Reg. Aff. Contractors, Inc., 2909 Yukon Dr., Columbia, MO 65202
interests:Phage inactivation (MS2 0X174 and P22) by chemical/light combination and anti-Pasteurella phage therapy. Am also interested in helpful hints on phage isolation and propagation. (contents | BEG members | top of page)
Robert Goldman --- rgoldman
@pop.uh.edu		 Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204
interests:Role of phage in natural microbial communities, particularly soil environments; the isolation and characterization of phage from natural communities; the use of phage and bacteria as experimental systems to test evolutionary and ecological hypotheses; phage therapy; diversity and abundance of phage in microbial communities associated with native prairie grasses. (contents | BEG members | top of page)
Park Se-Chang --- parksc
@ipc.hiroshima-u.ac.jp		 Laboratory of Fish Pathology, Fac. Appl. Bio. Sci., Hiroshima University, Kagamiyama 1-4-4, Higashihiroshima 739, Japan
interests:Bacteriophage therapeutics. (contents | BEG members | top of page)
Grieg F. Steward --- gsteward
@cats.ucsc.edu		 Ocean Sciences Department, A451 Earth and Marine Science Bldg., University of California, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, CA 95064
interests:Molecular diversity and ecology of bacteria and viruses. The influence of phages on bacterial population dynamics in aquatic ecosystems. (contents | BEG members | top of page)
Heather Uwins --- pdf_hku
@hotkey.net.au		 Environmental Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan Qld
interests:Development of methods to measure bacteriophage replication using isotope tagging. (contents | BEG members | top of page)

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New Links

Links relevant to The Bacteriophage Ecology Group fall into a number of categories (e.g., see Bacteriophage Ecology Links at www.phage.org/beg_links.htm). Listed below are new links found on that page. If you know of a link that should be included on this page, or the whereabouts of a now-dead link, please let me know.

New Bacteriophage Ecology (Etc.) Links

No new links this quarter, sorry. Here, however, are some interesting Google searches and stats (searches done Friday, March 30, 2001):

Search Term Hits
sex 39,800,000
God 20,300,000
environment 19,100,000
AIDS 5,570,000
virus 5,460,000
ecology 2,310,000
virus -AIDS -HIV 1,350,000
bacteria 1,290,000
"safe sex" 179,000
phage OR phages OR
bacteriophage OR bacteriophages		 71,600
phage 71,300
bacteriophage 46,100
evolution and phage OR phages OR
bacteriophage OR bacteriophages		 14,900
phages 12,600
bacteriophages 9,860
ecology and phage OR phages OR
bacteriophage OR bacteriophages		 6,080
library OR libraries and "phage display" 4,570
ASM and
phage OR phages		 1,360
Bdelovibrio 1,190
"pathogenicity island" 785
"phage therapy" 346
link: www.phage.org 209
"bacteriophage ecology" 145
"Bacteriophage Ecology Group" 97
"phage ecology" 69
link: "HomePhage" 69
"division M" and phage OR phages 34
"phage evolution" 52
HomePhage 32
HomePhage and
phage OR phages OR bacteriophage		 7

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New Features

In this section I highlight new or updated features of the BEG site. If you have any ideas of how either the BEG site or BEG News might be improved, please let me know.
Bacteriophage Ecology Web Ring:

The web ring is functioning properly now. To join the ring directly, go to this web page: http://edit.webring.yahoo.com/cgi-bin/membercgi?ring=bacteriophageeco&addsite. Thanks!

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Upcoming Meetings

The BEG Meetings link will continue. Reminders of upcoming meetings will be placed in this section of BEG News. If you know of any meetings that might be of interest to BEG members, or would like to recap a meeting that you've attended, then please send this information for posting to abedon.1@osu.edu or to "BEG Meetings," Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906.
Evergreen International Phage Meeting
Next Summer's phage meeting has been scheduled for August 8-13, 2001. The web page for this meeting can be found at http://www.evergreen.edu/user/T4/2001Meet.html. As always, this will be the meeting that brings together phage people with the widest possible array of interests - from the ecological to the molecular - in a setting of rain forest spender in the city that Time Magazine dubbed the "Hippest town in the West".
Ruby Beach Mount Ranier in the morning
Click for Olympia, Washington Forecast

Seattle Postcard

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Jobs

Looking for job? Looking to fill a position? Please send advertisement and information to abedon.1@osu.edu or to "Jobs", Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906. Please send all information as text (e.g., as an e-mail) or as Microsoft Word documents, if possible (I'll let you know if I have trouble converting any other document formats), and in English. I will update this section as I receive material, regardless of what date this issue of BEG News goes live.

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Submissions

Submissions are non-editorial items describing or highlighting some aspect of bacteriophage ecology including news pieces, historical pieces, reviews, and write-ups of research. Peer review of submissions is possible and a desire for peer review should be indicated. Send all submissions to abedon.1@osu.edu or to "Submissions", Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906. Please send all submissions as Microsoft Word documents, if possible (I'll let you know if I have trouble converting any other document formats), and in English.
Selling Phage Candy

In grade school we were asked to sell candy to neighbors to raise money for who can remember what. The kid with the largest haul always earned some prize and, of course, I never did. Early on I realized that attitude was everything. You had to believe (or, at least, sound as though you believed) that you were actually doing people a favor as their local pusher of sucrose saturated lipid! Pretty good for an eight-year-old, but still naïve. Even the greatest attitude won't buy you a cup of coffee, bring home the (soy/faux) bacon, get that grant funded, or pad one's bank account with a million bucks before others have even earned tenure. No, what really matters in this world is marketing. Never mind whether you really mean it (or even believe it). In the short term, at least, the pitch is everything. So now that we have a number of companies dedicated to phagology and the competition for clicks (and dollars?) that is the World Wide Web, it is time to get down to the dirty business of reviewing phage company logos and, especially, animated graphics. May the marketing begin...

The Bacteriophage Ecology Group maintains of list of phage-oriented companies at:

Included in this list are descriptions, contact information, and homepage URLs. To date the list includes, in alphabetical order:

See http://www.phagetherapy.com/ for a similar list. I'll try to avoid being too critical in this review, but here goes.

MicroPeace Biotechnology Consulting and PhageTech Inc. both lack home pages. Micropeace has a relatively small web presence (3 hits via a Google search). PhageTech does far better Google-wise (49), and they apparently own a URL (www.phagetech.com) but as yet have no homepage. Exponential Biotherapies, Inc. has a homepage, but it is only a single page and there are no graphics! On the other hand, their prose may be worth a thousand gifs:

"Our first product - now in manufacturing - combats a strain of bacteria whose rapid spread is compromising the safety and profitability of some of the nation's major hospital centers. Human clinical trials are projected to begin in the first quarter of 2001."

Winner of our award for the most imformative gif is Phage Therapeutics International Inc. (PhageTx) who provide us with nice logo:

Phage Therapeutics International Inc. (PhageTx)

But what really scores points is their interactive timeline (which, unfortunately, has such complex coding that I won't even attempt to duplicate it here).

The logo on the Biophage Inc. site is gorgeous, but what the heck is it? Idealized animal cells? You decide:

Biophage Inc.

The most scientifically informative image is presented by Phage Biotech, Ltd., though this is more graphic than logo. It is an animated Shockwave showing phages (T-even, of course) adsorbing to a red coccobacillus. Adsorption is followed by virion maturation and then host lysis with progeny eagerly pushing their way out of the ghost-like remnants of their cellular incubator. The 2001-like silence of the process is eerie, however, with the viewer perhaps hoping for a Star Wars-ish pseudo-space-wizardry soundtrack.

Perhaps it is indeed Star Wars that Intralytix had in mind as they put together their introductory graphic. It has stars. It has a soundtrack. It also tells a story of sorts with words alternatively flashing on and then fading (lysis-like) away:

What if we could harness the natural predators and use them to our benefit?

What if we could use these creatures to infect and destroy bacteria such as Listeria, Salmonella, or E. coli?

Even bacteria that can not be killed with antibiotics!

We can!

Biophage Inc.

Say hello to phage.

INTRALYTIX

Harnessing the Power

Alternatively, you can skip the graphics. Either way, you will be treated to a logo that is not nearly as sexy as the opening graphic:

Intralytix

But what logo could be?

image © Phage et al.
© Phage et al.

MicroDude, a.k.a., Stephen T. Abedon
is the Developer and Editor of The Bacteriophage Ecology Group web site which is dedicated to the ecology and evolutionary biology of the parasites of unicellular organisms (UOPs)

Submissions Archive

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Letters & Questions

Letters should consist of comments, short statements, or personal editorials. Send all letters to abedon.1@osu.edu or to "Letters", Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906. Please send all letters in English and all mailed or attached letters as Microsoft Word documents, if possible (I'll let you know if I have trouble converting any other document formats). In addition, to standard letters, BEG receives questions on a regular basis that may be addressed by BEG members. These questions are listed below. Anybody interested in answering these questions through BEG News, e-mail me at the following address: abedon.1@osu.edu. Alternatively, answer by clicking the authors name. Please note that these questions have not been edited for grammar, spelling, or clarity.

Looking for RNA Coliphages

Marek Kirs, marek@gso.uri.edu

earlier... my name is marek and i'm a grad student at the uri, currently doing a side project, maybe-maybe PhD, on coliphages. i'm trying to modify methodology for group I, II III and IV F-RNA coliophage(Leviviridae) detection from Griffin, 2000 using molecular beacons. And i have some ideas for future if we get here a right machine like ABIPrism. Anyway, i have some problems - do you have any idea were i can get positive controls for my experiment. Positive controls for Leviviridae subgroups:

  • Subgroup I - i'm all set, I have MS2
  • Subgroup II -strains that i am aware are BZ13, JP 34, TH1, GA, KU1; none of them in ATCC.
  • Subgroup III - ATCC has Q-Beta for $165
  • Subgroup IV - ATCC has F1 for $175

What I need is:

  • Levivirus - subgroup II GA or KUI1
  • Allelovirus - subgroup III Q-Beta (has anyone a full sequence of this genome? the probe which is usually used for this group is impossible to fold to a beacon due to secondary structures as well I discovered 3b mismatch in one end, so i need to find another target area)
  • Allelovirus - subgroup IV SP or FI (does SP grow on E.coli? E.coli FAMP is the only host I have in culture)

Do you know anybody who I can contact to ask this material. Prices for SP, FI and QBeta in ATCC are too high to my budget(each $165-175)).

later... It took me awhile to finish subgroup II and III beacons, also I needed to switch an office and machine...

I'm still looking for sequence(s) of F1. Also TW28 would not hurt, but I doubt that anybody has anything from it. I have only GenBank sequences and there are only couple of very short sequences of F1, definetly not enough for designing a beacon for this group.

Could you please forward this request in suitable form to the list?


T1 Contamination Problems

Ted Schram, tschram@incyte.com

what info do you have on T1 phage? we have it here in our lab, infecting our cells and such.


About Lambda Phage

Devanagoud Patil, dpatil@bioch.ox.ac.uk

I am a post-doctoral fellow working in the Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford,UK. I am looking for the following information and would grately appreciate your help.

  1. Antibodies (for ELISA and western) against any of the lambda phage proteins expressed on the outer surface of head or tail.
  2. A filteration based procedure for preparataion and concentration of lambda phage from 1 to 5 liter culture (final concentrated volume 5-10 ml of Tris-Mg++).

Is there a phage newsgroup or a forum to post this message?

Thank you very much for your help and time.


Looking for Phage O-1

Lydia Dayang, lyds_dayang@yahoo.com

Greetings from the Philippines!

May I inquire how could I possibly get phage O-1 which I will be needed for my screening of Salmonella from feces. I hope you can help me.

Thank you and more power!


Interest in Phage Therapy

Mary Shelton, plytmrs@nottingham.ac.uk

I am a final year microbiologist at Nottingham University. For my Dissertation I am reviewing the scope of Bacteriophage as Therapeutic agents.

I am focusing on the potential of clinical applications and reviewing the practical problems have been overcome.

I would greatly appreciate any help or direction you can provide. I am interested in the following areas:

  • rapid clearance of phage from the circulation system by RES
  • isolation of long circulating mutants, by cycling through mice
  • efficiency of recent trials
  • irradication of bacteria, sterilisation or reduction of bacterial load
  • comparisons to antibiotic therapy (efficacy and efficiency)
  • scope of combination (Antibiotics AND phage) therapy
  • realistic risk of resistance, and spread of pathogenisity islands by lysogenic phage
  • enhancing pysiological properties of phage to increase therapeutic qualities

This is only a few of the areas i am investigating, of which i have some specific questions to pose.

I would appreciate any contacts, journal citations/references, and suggestions of alternative directions.

This is a critical discussion of the clinical scope of bacteriophage as therapeutic agents and i would value your opinions highly

Thankyou in anticipation

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Phage Images

Please send any phage images that you would like to present in this section to "Phage Images," The Bacteriophage Ecology Group, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906. Alternatively, you may scan the images yourself and send them as an attachment to abedon.1@osu.edu. Please save all scans in gif or jpg formats and preferably with an image size (in terms of width, height, and kbytes) that will readily fit on a standard web page. No copyrighted material without permission, please!

Phage T4 on the pedestal outside of Barker Hall at Berkeley

Phage Image Archive

Phage T4 on the pedestal outside of Barker Hall at Berkeley. Does anybody have a better photo(s) of the above as well as an idea as to its history and current status? I would love to feature it. Contact abedon.1@osu.edu with information. Thanks!

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New Publications

New bacteriophage publications are listed below. Each quarter not-yet-listed publications from the previous two years will be presented along with their abstracts. The indicator "???" denotes, of course, that specific information is not yet in the BEG Bibliography. Please help in the compilation of the BEG Bibliography by supplying any updated information, correcting any mistakes, and, of course, sending the references to your bacteriophage ecology publications, as well as the references to any bacteriophage ecology publications that you know of but which are not yet in the bibliography (send to abedon.1@osu.edu or to "BEG Bibliography," Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, care of Stephen T. Abedon, Department of Microbiology, The Ohio State University, 1680 University Dr., Mansfield, Ohio 44906). Also, be sure to indicate any listed publications that you feel should not be presented in the BEG Bibliography. This list is also present with available abstracts at the end of BEG News.
  1. The Vibrio cholerae VPI?/CTX?/TCP: Interactions of PHAGE-PHAGE-bacterium. Ai, Y.-C., Meng, F. (2001). Acta Microbiologica Sinica 41. [no abstract]

  2. Comparative phage genomics and the evolution of Siphoviridae: Insights from dairy phages. Brussow, H., Desiere, F. (2001). Molecular Microbiology 39:213-222. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  3. Variable assortment of prophages provides a transferable repertoire of pathogenic determinants in Salmonella. Figueroa-Bossi, N., Uzzau, S., Maloriol, D., Bossi, L. (2001). Molecular Microbiology 39:260-271. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  4. First evidence of lysogeny in Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii. Herve, C., Coste, A., Rouault, A., Fraslin, J. M., Gautier, M. (2001). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67:231-238. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  5. Isolation and characterization of five Erwinia amylovora bacteriophages and assessment of phage resistance in strains of Erwinia amylovora. Schnabel, E. L., Jones, A. L. (2001). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67:59-64. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  6. Understanding bacteriophage therapy as a density-dependent kinetic process. Payne, R. J. H., Jansen, V. A. A. (2001). Journal of Theoretical Biology 208:37-48. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  7. Antibody responses to bacteriophage variant phiX-174 in human subjects exposed to the Antarctic winter-over model of spaceflight. Shearer, W. T., Lugg, D. J., Rosenblatt, H. M., Nickolls, P. M., Sharp, R. M., Reuben, J. M., Ochs, H. D. (2001). Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 107:160-164. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  8. Rapid coliphage detection assay. Stanek, J. E., Falkinham, J. O., III (2001). Journal of Virological Methods 91:93-98. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  9. Predation in the presence of decoys: An inhibitory factor on pathogen control by bacteriophages or bdellovibrios in dense and diverse ecosystems. Wilkinson, M. H. F. (2001). Journal of Theoretical Biology 208:27-36. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  10. The evolution of pathogen-host interactions mediated by bacteriophages. Ai, Y.-C., Meng, F., Zeng, Y. (2000). Acta Microbiologica Sinica 40:657-661. [no abstract]

  11. Phage resistance in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains isolated from traditional fermented milk products in Turkey. Akcelik, M., Sanlibaba, P., Tükel, C. (2000). International Journal of Food Science & Technology 35:473-481. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  12. The presence of viruses and bacteria along the Adriatic Coast. Aulicino, F. A., Ammazzalorso, P., Ercolessi, M., Banini, L., Silverii, G., Orsini, P., Mastrantonio, A., Bellucci, C., Carere, M. (2000). Igiene Moderna 113:99-116. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  13. Evolvability of an RNA virus is determined by its mutational neighbourhood. Burch, C. L., Chao, L. (2000). Nature (London) 406:625-628. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  14. Inactivation of indicator microorganisms in estuarine waters. Burkhardt, W., III, Calci, K. R., Watkins, W. D., Rippey, S. R., Chirtel, S. J. (2000). Water Research 34:2207-2214. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  15. Large-plaque mutants of Sindbis virus show reduced binding to heparan sulfate, heightened viremia, and slower clearance from the circulation. Byrnes, A. P., Griess, G. A. (2000). Journal of Virology 74:644-651. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  16. Isolation of a virulent bacteriophage from a Propionibacterium species in the sheep rumen. Cheong, J. P. E., Brooker, J. D. (2000). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 51:119-123. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  17. Effect of deleterious mutation-accumulation on the fitness of RNA bacteriophage MS2. de la Pena, M., Elena, S. F., Moya, A. (2000). Evolution 54:686-691. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  18. Present and potential applications of genetic engineering in agronomy and agro-food. Desmazeaud, M. (2000). Comptes Rendus de l'Academie d'Agriculture de France 86:97-102. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  19. Pathogenicity islands and phage conversion: Evolutionary aspects of bacterial pathogenesis. Dobrindt, U., Reidl, J. (2000). IJMM International Journal of Medical Microbiology 290:519-527. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  20. Control of bacterial spot on tomato in the greenhouse and field with h-mutant bacteriophages. Flaherty, J. E., Jones, J. B., Harbaugh, B. K., Somodi, G. C., Jackson, L. E. (2000). Hortscience 35:882-884. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  21. The origins and ongoing evolution of viruses. Hendrix, R. W., Lawrence, J. G., Hatfull, G. F., Casjens, S. (2000). Trends in Microbiology 8:504-508. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  22. Phage infection of the obligate intracellular bacterium, Chlamydia psittaci strain Guinea Pig Inclusion Conjunctivitis. Hsia, R. C., Ohayon, H., Gounon, P., Dautry-Varsat, A., Bavoil, P. M. (2000). Microbes and Infection 2:761-772. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  23. Control of the eel (Anguilla japonica) pathogens, Aeromonas hydrophila and Edwardsiella tarda, by bacteriophages. Hsu, C. H., Lo, C. Y., Liu, J. K., Lin, C. S. (2000). Journal of the Fisheries Society of Taiwan 27:21-31. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  24. Temperature influences induction of a J7W-1-related phage in Bacillus thuringiensis serovar indiana. Kanda, K., Kayashima, T., Kato, F., Murata, A. (2000). Acta Virologica 44:183-187. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  25. Mating in Bacillus thuringiensis can induce plasmid integrative prophage J7W-1. Kanda, K., Takada, Y., Kawasaki, F., Kato, F., Murata, A. (2000). Acta Virologica 44:189-193. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  26. Rapid titration of multiple samples of filamentous bacteriophage (M13) on nitrocellulose filters. Koch, J., Breitling, F., Duebel, S. (2000). BioTechniques 29:1196-1202. [no abstract]

  27. Inactivation of coliphages by chitosan derivatives. Kochkina, Z. M., Surgucheva, N. A., Chirkov, S. N. (2000). Mikrobiologiya 69:261-265. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  28. Effect of simulated gastric fluid and bile on survival of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio vulnificus phage. Koo, J., Depaola, A., Marshall, D. L. (2000). Journal of Food Protection 63:1665-1669. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  29. High-frequency interconversion of turbid and clear plaque strains of bacteriophage f1 and associated host cell death. Kuo, M. Y., Yang, M. K., Chen, W. P., Kuo, T. T. (2000). Canadian Journal of Microbiology 46:841-847. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  30. Yersinia pestis variants, resistant to diagnostic bacteriophage, and problems connected with them. Lebedeva, S. A. (2000). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii 99-104. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  31. Broad-range bacteriophage resistance in Streptococcus thermophilus by insertional mutagenesis. Lucchini, S., Sidoti, J., Brussow, H. (2000). Virology 275:267-277. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  32. The life cycles of the temperate lactococcal bacteriophage phiLC3 monitored by a quantitative PCR method. Lunde, M., Blatny, J. M., Kaper, F., Nes, I. F., Lillehaug, D. (2000). FEMS Microbiology Letters 192:119-124. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  33. Distribution and evolution of bacteriophage WO in Wolbachia, the endosymbiont causing sexual alterations in arthropods. Masui, S., Kamoda, S., Sasaki, T., Ishikawa, H. (2000). Journal of Molecular Evolution 51:491-497. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  34. Viral contamination of shellfish: Evaluation of methods and analysis of bacteriophages and human viruses. Muniain-Mujika, I., Girones, R., Lucena, F. (2000). Journal of Virological Methods 89:109-118. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  35. The R-type pyocin of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is related to P2 phage, and the F-type is related to lambda phage. Nakayama, K., Takashima, K., Ishihara, H., Shinomiya, T., Kageyama, M., Kanaya, S., Ohnishi, M., Murata, T., Mori, H., Hayashi, T. (2000). Molecular Microbiology 38:213-231. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  36. Phytoremediation of domestic wastewater for reducing populations of Escherichia coli and MS-2 coliphage. Neralla, S., Weaver, R. W. (2000). Environmental Technology 21:691-698. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  37. A new bacteriophage, VHML, isolated from a toxin-producing strain of Vibrio harveyi in tropical Australia. Oakey, H. J., Owens, L. (2000). Journal of Applied Microbiology 89:702-709. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  38. Protection against bacteriophage contamination in industrial fermentation processes: Investigation and applications of phage resistance mechanisms in bacteria. Ogata, S., Eguchi, T., Doi, K. (2000). Virus (Nagoya) 50:17-26. [no abstract]

  39. Analysis of two-stage continuous operation of Escherichia coli containing bacteriophage lambda vector. Park, S. H., Park, T. H. (2000). Bioprocess Engineering 23:557-563. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  40. Transmission of viruses via contact in a household setting: Experiments using bacteriophage phiX174 as a model virus. Rheinbaben, F., Schuenemann, S., Gross, T., Wolff, M. H. (2000). Journal of Hospital Infection 46:61-66. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  41. Dynamics of bacterial community composition and activity during mesocosm diatom blooms. Riemann, L., Steward, G. F., Azam, F. (2000). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66:578-587. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  42. Progressive specific immune attrition after primary, secondary and tertiary immunizations with bacteriophage PHI X174 in asymptomatic HIV-1 infected patients. Rubinstein, A., Mizrachi, Y., Bernstein, L., Shliozberg, J., Golodner, M., Liu, G. Q., Ochs, H. D. (2000). AIDS (Hagerstown). 14:F55-F62. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  43. Removal efficiencies of indicator micro-organisms in the Al-Khobar wastewater treatment plant. Saleem, M., Bukhari, A. A., Al-Malack, M. H. (2000). Environmental Engineering Science 17:227-232. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  44. Removal of microorganisms by deep well injection. Schijven, J. F., Medema, G., Vogelaar, A. J., Hassanizadeh, S. M. (2000). Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 44:301-327. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  45. Discovery, purification, and characterization of a temperate transducing bacteriophage for Bordetella avium. Shelton, C. B., Crosslin, D. R., Casey, J. L., Ng, S., Temple, L. M., Orndorff, P. E. (2000). Journal of Bacteriology 182:6130-6136. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  46. The interactions of peptides with the innate immune system studied with use of T7 phage peptide display [see comments]. Sokoloff, A. V., Bock, I, Zhang, G., Sebestyen, M. G., Wolff, J. A. (2000). Mol Ther 2:131-139. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  47. Genome size distributions indicate variability and similarities among marine viral assemblages from diverse environments. Steward, G. F., Montiel, J. L., Azam, F. (2000). Limnology and Oceanography 45:1697-1706. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  48. Analysis of marine viral assemblages. Steward, G. F., Azam, F. (2000). pp. 159-165 in Bell, C. R., Brylinski, M., Johnson-Green, P. (eds.) Microbial Biosystems: New Frontiers.. Atlantic Canada Society for Microbial Ecology, ??? [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  49. Use of bioluminescent Salmonella for assessing the efficiency of constructed phage-based biosorbent. Sun, W., Brovko, L., Griffiths, M. (2000). Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology 25:273-275. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  50. Fate of indigenous bacteriophage in a membrane bioreactor. Ueda, T., Horan, N. J. (2000). Water Research 34:2151-2159. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  51. Killing of flies in electrocuting insect traps releases bacteria and viruses. Urban, J. E., Broce, A. (2000). Current Microbiology 41:267-270. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  52. Models of experimental evolution: The role of genetic chance and selective necessity. Wahl, L. M., Krakauer, D. C. (2000). Genetics 156:1437-1448. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  53. Experimental evolution recapitulates natural evolution. Wichman, H. A., Scott, L. A., Yarber, C. D., Bull, J. J. (2000). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences 355:1677-1684. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  54. Effect of alcohols on Escherichia coli phages. Yamashita, M., Murahashi, H., Tomita, T., Hirata, A. (2000). Biocontrol Science 5:9-16. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  55. High-frequency transduction (HFT) of resistance to ceftazidime and other antibiotics by a wild-type Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage. Blahová, J., Králiková, K., Krcméry, V., Sr., Bartoníková, N., Mikovicova, A (1999). Zentralblatt Fuer Bakteriologie 289:179-183. [no abstract]

  56. High-frequency transduction of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa by a wild-type bacteriophage with restricted specificity for recipient strains. Blahová, J., Králiková, K., Krcméry, V., Sr., Bartoníková, N. (1999). European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 18:152-154. [no abstract]

  57. Alternative mechanism of cholera toxin acquisition by Vibrio cholerae: Generalized transduction of CTXPHI by bacteriophage CP-T1. Boyd, E. F., Waldor, Matthew K. (1999). Infection and Immunity 67:5898-5905. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  58. Induction and characterization of Pediococcus acidilactici temperate bacteriophage. Caldwell, S. L., McMahon, D. J., Oberg, C. J., Broadbent, J. R. (1999). Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 22:514-519. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  59. Adsorption of bacteriophages on clay minerals. Chattopadhyay, S., Puls, R. W. (1999). Environmental Science & Technology 33:3609-3614. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  60. Inactivation of faecal indicator microorganisms in waste stabilisation ponds: Interactions of environmental factors with sunlight. Davies-Colley, R. J., Donnison, A. M., Speed, D. J., Ross, C. M., Nagels, J. W. (1999). Water Research 33:1220-1230. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  61. Rapid transport of viruses in a floodplain aquifer. DeBorde, D. C., Woessner, W. W., Kiley, Q. T., Ball, P. (1999). Water Research 33:2229-2238. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  62. Presence of bacteriophages in different stages of wastewater treatment. Donia, D., Divizia, M., Pana, A., Gabrieli, R., Gasbarro, M., Capuani, L., Morelli, A. L. (1999). Igiene Moderna 111:239-251. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  63. Horizontal gene transfer among bacteria in terrestrial and aquatic habitats as assessed by microcosm and field studies. Droege, M., Puehler, A., Selbitschka, W. (1999). Biology and Fertility of Soils 29:221-245. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  64. Development of reduced acridines as antiprophage agents. El-Bermawy, M. A., Kadry, A., El-Didamony, G., Amin, M. (1999). Chinese Pharmaceutical Journal (Taipei) 51:191-200. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  65. Lysogenic Conversion of Environmental Vibrio mimicus Strains by CTXF. Faruque, S. M., Rahman, M. M., Asadulghani, K. M., Islam, N., Mekalanos, J. J. (1999). Infection and Immunity 67:5723-5729. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  66. Phage typing of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli and its use as an adjunct to serotyping. Frost, J. A., Kramer, J. M., Gillanders, S. A. (1999). Epidemiology and Infection 123:47-55. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  67. Removal of viruses by microfiltration membranes at different solution environments. Herath, G., Yamamoto, K., Urase, T. (1999). Water Science and Technology 40:331-338. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  68. Changing consumer water-use patterns and their effect on microbiological water quality as a result of an engineering intervention. Jagals, P., Bokako, T. C., Grabow, W. O. K. (1999). Water S A (Pretoria) 25:297-326. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  69. Development of lytic Lactococcus lactis bacteriophages in a Cheddar cheese plant. Josephsen, J., Petersen, A., Neve, H., Nielsen, E. W. (1999). International Journal of Food Microbiology 50:163-171. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  70. Cryostabilization of biological properties of Yersinia pestis phages. Kadetov, V. V., Kudryakova, T. A., Terentyev, A. N., Kachkina, G. V., Borodina, T. N., Sayamov, S. R. (1999). Voprosy Virusologii 44:136-139. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  71. A bacteriophage encoding a pathogenicity island, a type-IV pilus and a phage receptor in cholera bacteria. Karaolis, D. K. R., Somara, S., Maneval, D. R., Jr., Johnson, J. A., Kaper, J. B. (1999). Nature (London) 399:375-379. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  72. Biological projectiles (phage, yeast, bacteria) for genetic transformation of plants. Kikkert, J. R., Humiston, G. A., Roy, M. K., Sanford, J. C. (1999). In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology Plant 35:43-50. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  73. Comparative genomics of Streptococcus thermophilus phage species supports a modular evolution theory. Lucchini, S., Desiere, F., Brussow, H. (1999). Journal of Virology 73:8647-8656. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  74. The genetic relationship between virulent and temperate Streptococcus thermophilus bacteriophages: Whole genome comparison of cos-site phages Sfi19 and Sfi21. Lucchini, S., Desiere, F., Brussow, H. (1999). Virology 260:232-243. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  75. History of the discovery and study of brucellar bacteriophages. Lyapustina, L. V., Lyamkin, G. I., Taran, I. F. (1999). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii 123-124. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  76. Enteroviruses in the recreational waters of Lake Orta. Maiello, A., Guidetti, A., Poncetta, D., Ossola, O., Guidetti, L., Buttinelli, G., Fiore, L., Ruggenini, A. M. (1999). Lakes Reservoirs Research and Management 4:93-99. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  77. Prophages inserted in archaebacterial genomes. Makino, S. I., Amano, N., Koike, H., Suzuki, M. (1999). Proceedings of the Japan Academy Series B Physical and Biological Sciences 75:166-171. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  78. Seasonal changes in densities of cyanophage infectious to Microcystis aeruginosa in a hypereutrophic pond. Manage, P., Kawabata, Z., Nakano, S. (1999). Hydrobiologia. 211-216. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  79. Bacterial and viral indicators of fecal pollution in Mexico City's southern aquifer. Mazari-Hiriart, M., Torres-Beristain, B., Velazquez, E., Calva, J. J., Pillai, S. D. (1999). Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A Toxic-Hazardous Substances & Environmental Engineering 34:1715-1735. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  80. Virulence evolution in a virus obeys a trade-off. Messenger, S. L., Molineux, I. J., Bull, J. J. (1999). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences 266:397-404. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  81. Quantitative assessment of the inactivation of pathogenic and indicator viruses in natural water sources. Nasser, A. M., Oman, S. D. (1999). Water Research 33:1748-1752. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  82. A possible role of temperate phage in the regulation of Trichodesmium biomass. Ohki, K. (1999). Bulletin de l'Institut Oceanographique (Monaco) 0:287-291. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  83. Microbiological studies in the Dead Sea: Future challenges toward the understanding of life at the limit of salt concentrations. Oren, A. (1999). Hydrobiologia 1-9. [no abstract]

  84. Induction of the phage resistance in the progeny of an infected bacterial cell. Pererva, T. P. (1999). Biopolimery i Kletka 15:63-66. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  85. [Evaluation of the usefulness of new international experimental phages for typing methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)]. Piechowicz, L., Wisniewska, K., Galinski, J. (1999). Medycyna Doswiadczalna i Mikrobiologia 51:31-36. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  86. An evaluation of the efficacy of a wastewater treatment plant. Poncetta, D., Maiello, A., Guidetti, L., Moiraghi, R. A. (1999). Igiene Moderna 112:1-15. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  87. Prevention of Clostridium difficile-induced ileocecitis with bacteriophage. Ramesh, V, Fralick, Joe A., Rolfe, Rial D. (1999). Anaerobe 5:69-78. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  88. Physicochemical mechanisms responsible for the filtration and mobilization of a filamentous bacteriophage in quartz sand. Redman, J. A., Grant, S. B., Olson, T. M., Adkins, J. M., Jackson, J. L., Castillo, M. S., Yanko, W. A. (1999). Water Research 33:43-52. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  89. Analysis of bacteriophage inactivation and its attenuation by adsorption onto colloidal particles by batch agitation techniques. Rossi, P., Aragno, M. (1999). Canadian Journal of Microbiology 45:9-17. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  90. Bacteriological evaluation of composting systems in sludge treatment. Shaban, A. M. (1999). Water Science and Technology 40:165-170. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  91. PPL1c, a virulent mutant bacteriophage useful for identification of Paenibacillus larvae subspecies larvae. Stahly, D. P., Alippi, A. M., Bakhiet, N., Campana, C. F., Novak, C. C., Cox, R. (1999). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 74:295-296. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  92. The panda and the phage: Compensatory mutations and the persistence of small populations. Whitlock, M. C., Otto, S. P. (1999). Trends in Ecology & Evolution 14:295-296. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  93. Purification of MS2 bacteriophage from complex growth media and resulting analysis by the integrated virus detection system (IVDS). Wick, C. H., McCubbin, P. E. (1999). Toxicology Methods 9:253-263. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  94. Characterization of purified MS2 bacteriophage by the physical counting methodology used in the integrated virus detection system (IVDS). Wick, C. H., McCubbin, P. E. (1999). Toxicology Methods 9:245-252. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  95. Passage of MS2 bacteriophage through various molecular weight filters. Wick, C. H., McCubbin, P. E. (1999). Toxicology Methods 9:265-273. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  96. Analysis of cyanophage diversity and population structure in a south-north transect of the Atlantic ocean. Wilson, W. H., Fuller, N. J., Joint, I. R., Mann, N. H. (1999). Bulletin de l'Institut Oceanographique (Monaco). 0:209-216. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  97. An unexpected temporal pattern of coliphage isolation in groundwaters sampled from wells at varied distances from reclaimed water recharge sites. Yanko, W. A., Jackson, J. L., Williams, F. P., Walker, A. S., Castillo, M. S. (1999). Water Research 33:53-64. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  98. Characterization of a Vibrio parahaemolyticus phage isolated from marine. Yoon, S. O., Ju, S. A., Heo, M. S., Jung, C. R., Ju, J. W. (1999). Journal of the Korean Society for Microbiology 34:423-433. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  99. Microbiological and chemical quality of sludges from domestic wastewater plants. Aulicino, F. A., Colombi, A., Calcaterra, E., Carere, M., Mastrantonio, A., Orsini, P. (1998). International Journal of Environmental Health Research 8:137-144. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  100. Transduction of imipenem resistance by wild-type bacteriophages carried by three strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from a single source. Blahova, J., Kralikova, K., Krcmery, V, Mlynarcik, D., Trupl, J. (1998). Journal Of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 41:660-662. [no abstract]

  101. Filamentous bacteriophages of Vibrio parahaemolyticus as a possible clue to genetic transmission. Chang, B., Taniguchi, H., Miyamaoto, H., Yoshida, S. I. (1998). Journal of Bacteriology 180:5094-5101. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  102. The fate and transport of viruses through surface water constructed wetlands. Chendorian, M., Yates, M., Villegas, F. (1998). Journal of Environmental Quality 27:1451-1458. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  103. Bacteriophages and bacteria as indicators of enteric viruses in oysters and their harvest waters. Chung, H., Jaykus, L. A., Lovelace, G., Sobsey, M. D. (1998). Water Science and Technology 38:37-44. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  104. Coliphage prevalence in high school septic effluent and associated ground water. DeBorde, D. C., Woessner, W. W., Lauerman, B., Ball, P. (1998). Water Research 32:3781-3785. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  105. The development of management strategies for control of virological quality in oysters. Dore, W. J., Henshilwood, K., Lees, D. N. (1998). Water Science and Technology 38:29-35. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  106. Effectiveness of membrane-filtration for phage technique for the detection of Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri. Ebisugi, H., Ooishi, S., Goda, T., Kubo, H., Sakiyama, K. (1998). Research Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service Japan 113-115. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  107. Characterization of Lactobacillus fermentum bacteriophage Z63-B2. Foschino, R., Castiglioni, E., Galli, A. (1998). Annali di Microbiologia ed Enzimologia 48:151-159. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  108. Bacteriophage and associated polysaccharide depolymerases: Novel tools for study of bacterial biofilms. Hughes, K. A., Sutherland, I. W., Clark, J., Jones, M. V. (1998). Journal of Applied Microbiology 85:583-590. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  109. Biofilm susceptibility to bacteriophage attack: The role of phage-borne polysaccharide depolymerase. Hughes, K. A., Sutherland, I. W., Jones, M. V. (1998). Microbiology (Reading) 144:3039-3047. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  110. Virus removal by advanced membrane filtration for wastewater reclamation. Iranpour, R. (1998). Water Environment Research 70:1198-1204. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  111. Inactivation of bacteriophage lambda, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans by ozone. Komanapalli, I. R., Lau, B. H. S. (1998). Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 49:766-769. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  112. Advanced wastewater disinfection technologies: Short and long term efficiency. Lazarova, V, Janex, M. L., Fiksdal, L., Oberg, C., Barcina, I, Pommepuy, M. (1998). Water Science and Technology 38:109-117. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  113. Involvement of a prophage in the lysis of Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris AM2 during cheese ripening. Lepeuple, A. S., Vassal, L., Cesselin, B., Delacroix-Buchet, A., Gripon, J. C., Chapot-Chartier, M. P. (1998). International Dairy Journal 8:667-674. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  114. Reconstruction of the presumptive mechanisms of bacteriophage speciation and morphological evolution. Letarov, A. V. (1998). Genetika 34:1461-1469. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  115. Defective phage as an antagonistic factor of closely related bacilli. Lotareva, O. V., Prozorov, A. A. (1998). Mikrobiologiya 67:788-791. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  116. Efficacy and mechanisms of action of sodium hypochlorite on Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 phage F116. Maillard, J. Y., Hann, A. C., Baubet, V, Perrin, R. (1998). Journal of Applied Microbiology 85:925-932. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  117. Bacteriophage PM2 nomenclature revision. Merino, S., Tomas, J. M., Maniloff, J. (1998). Archives of Virology 143:1852-1853. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  118. Long term use of a Cheddar starter and development of phages with homology to its bacteria. Nielsen, E. W. (1998). International Dairy Journal 8:1003-1009. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  119. Virus removal in a membrane separation process. Otaki, M., Yano, K., Ohgaki, S. (1998). Water Science and Technology 37:107-116. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  120. Coliphages and indicator bacteria in birds around Boston Harbor. Ricca, D. M., Cooney, J. J. (1998). Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology 21:28-30. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  121. Reduction of FRNA-bacteriophages and faecal indicator bacteria by dune infiltration and estimation of sticking efficiencies. Schijven, J. F., Hoogenboezem, W., Nobel, P. J., Medema, G. J., Stakelbeek, A. (1998). Water Science and Technology 38:127-131. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  122. Reduction of Norwalk virus, poliovirus 1 and coliphage MS2 by monochloramine disinfection of water. Shin, G. A., Sobsey, M. D. (1998). Water Science and Technology 38:151-154. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  123. Time dose reciprocity in UV disinfection of water. Sommer, R., Haider, T., Cabaja., Pribil, W., Lhotsky, M. (1998). Water Science and Technology 38:145-150. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  124. Biological properties and classification of Erwinia carotovora bacteriocins. Tovkach, F. I. (1998). Mikrobiologiya 67:767-774. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  125. Chemiluminescence patterns from bacterial cultures undergoing bacteriophage induced mass lysis. Vogel, R., Guo, X, Suessmuth, R. (1998). Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics 46:59-64. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

  126. Biochemical and genetic analysis of lambdaW, the newly isolated lambdoid phage. Wrobel, B., Srutkowska, S., Wegrzyn, G. (1998). Acta Biochimica Polonica 45:251-259. [PRESS FOR ABSTRACT]

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New Publications with Abstracts

For your convenience, a list of new publications without associated abstracts (but with links to abstracts) is found above. The list presented below is identical to the above list except that abstracts are included.

  1. The Vibrio cholerae VPI?/CTX?/TCP: Interactions of PHAGE-PHAGE-bacterium. Ai, Y.-C., Meng, F. (2001). Acta Microbiologica Sinica 41.

  2. Comparative phage genomics and the evolution of Siphoviridae: Insights from dairy phages. Brussow, H., Desiere, F. (2001). Molecular Microbiology 39:213-222. Comparative phage genomics can retrace part of the evolutionary history of phage modules encoding phage-specific functions such as capsid building or establishment of the lysogenic state. The diagnosis of relatedness is not based exclusively on sequence similarity, but includes topological considerations of genome organization. The gene maps from the lambda-, psiM2-, L5-, Sfi21-, Sfi11-, phiC31-, sk1- and TM4-like phages showed a remarkable synteny of their structural genes defining a lambda supergroup within Siphoviridae (Caudovirales with long non-contractile tails). A hierarchy of relatedness within the lambda supergroup suggested elements of vertical evolution in the capsid module of Siphoviridae. Links to P22-like Podoviridae and P2-like Myoviridae were also detected. Numerous cases of horizontal gene transfer were observed, but recent transfers were limited to interbreeding phage populations. We suggest that tailed phages are the result of both vertical and horizontal evolution and are thus a good model system for web-like phylogenies

  3. Variable assortment of prophages provides a transferable repertoire of pathogenic determinants in Salmonella. Figueroa-Bossi, N., Uzzau, S., Maloriol, D., Bossi, L. (2001). Molecular Microbiology 39:260-271. Gene transfer between separate lineages of a bacterial pathogen can promote recombinational divergence and the emergence of new pathogenic variants. Temperate bacteriophages, by virtue of their ability to carry foreign DNA, are potential key players in this process. Our previous work has shown that representative strains of Salmonella typhimurium (LT2, ATCC14028 and SL1344) are lysogenic for two temperate bacteriophages: Gifsy-1 and Gifsy-2. Several lines of evidence suggested that both elements carry genes that contribute to Salmonella virulence. One such gene, on the Gifsy-2 prophage, codes for the (Cu, Zn) superoxide dismutase SodCI. Other putative pathogenicity determinants were uncovered more recently. These include genes for known or presumptive type III-translocated proteins and a locus, duplicated on both prophages, showing sequence similarity to a gene involved in Salmonella enteropathogenesis (pipA). In addition to Gifsy-1 and Gifsy-2, each of the above strains was found to harbour a specific set of prophages also carrying putative pathogenicity determinants. A phage released from strain LT2 and identified as phage Fels-1 carries the nanH gene and a novel sodC gene, which was named sodCIII. Strain ATCC14028 releases a lambdoid phage, named Gifsy-3, which contains the phoP/phoQ-activated pagJ gene and the gene for the secreted leucine-rich repeat protein SspH1. Finally, a phage specifically released from strain SL1344 was identified as SopEPHI. Most phage-associated loci transferred efficiently between Salmonella strains of the same or different serovars. Overall, these results suggest that lysogenic conversion is a major mechanism driving the evolution of Salmonella bacteria

  4. First evidence of lysogeny in Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii. Herve, C., Coste, A., Rouault, A., Fraslin, J. M., Gautier, M. (2001). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67:231-238. Dairy propionic acid bacteria, particularly the species Propionibacterium freudenreichii, play a major role in the ripening of Swiss type cheese. Isometric and filamentous bacteriophages infecting P. freudenreichii have previously been isolated from cheese. In order to determine the origin of these bacteriophages, lysogeny of P. freudenreichii was determined by isometric bacteriophage type analysis. The genomic DNA of 76 strains were hybridized with the DNA of nine bacteriophages isolated from Swiss type cheeses, and the DNA of 25 strains exhibited strong hybridization. Three of these strains released bacteriophage particules following UV irradiation (254 nm) or treatment with low concentrations of mitomycin C. A prophage-cured derivative of P. freudenreichii was readily isolated and subsequently relysogenized. Lysogeny was therefore formally demonstrated in P. freudenreichii

  5. Isolation and characterization of five Erwinia amylovora bacteriophages and assessment of phage resistance in strains of Erwinia amylovora. Schnabel, E.L., Jones, A. L. (2001). Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67:59-64. Phages able to infect the fire blight pathogen Erwinia amylovora were isolated from apple, pear, and raspberry tissues and from soil samples collected at sites displaying fire blight symptoms. Among a collection of 50 phage isolates, 5 distinct phages, including relatives of the previously described phages variant phiEa1 and variant phiEa7 and 3 novel phages named variant phiEa100, variant phiEa125, and variant phiEa116C, were identified based on differences in genome size and restriction fragment pattern. variant phiEa1, the phage distributed most widely, had an approximately 46-kb genome which exhibited some restriction site variability between isolates. Phages variant phiEa100, variant phiEa7, and variant phiEa125 each had genomes of approximately 35 kb and could be distinguished by their EcoRI restriction fragment patterns. variant phiEa116C contained an approximately 75-kb genome. variant phiEa1, variant phiEa7, variant phiEa100, variant phiEa125, and variant phiEa116C were able to infect 39, 36, 16, 20, and 40, respectively, of 40 E. amylovora strains isolated from apple orchards in Michigan and 8, 12, 10, 10, and 12, respectively, of 12 E. amylovora strains isolated from raspberry fields (Rubus spp.) in Michigan. Only 22 of 52 strains were sensitive to all five phages, and 23 strains exhibited resistance to more than one phage. variant phiEa116C was more effective than the other phages at lysing E. amylovora strain Ea110 in liquid culture, reducing the final titer of Ea110 by >95% when added at a ratio of 1 PFU per 10 CFU and by 58 to 90% at 1 PFU per 105 CFU

  6. Understanding bacteriophage therapy as a density-dependent kinetic process. Payne, R. J. H., Jansen, V. A. A. (2001). Journal of Theoretical Biology 208:37-48. Studies of bacteriophage as therapeutic agents have had mixed and unpredictable outcomes. We argue that interpretation of these apparently paradoxical results requires appreciation of various density-dependent threshold effects. We use a mathematical model to delineate different categories of outcome, including therapy by simple inundation, by active biocontrol, and by delayed active biocontrol. Counter-intuitively, there are situations in which earlier inoculation can be less efficacious, and simultaneous inoculation with antibiotics can be detrimental. Predictions of therapeutic responses are made using formulae dependent on biologically meaningful parameters; experimental measurement of the parameters will be a prerequisite of application of the model to particular study systems. Such modelling can point to which aspects of phage biology might most fruitfully be engineered so as to enhance the viability of bacteriophage therapy

  7. Antibody responses to bacteriophage variant phiX-174 in human subjects exposed to the Antarctic winter-over model of spaceflight. Shearer, W. T., Lugg, D. J., Rosenblatt, H. M., Nickolls, P. M., Sharp, R. M., Reuben, J. M., Ochs, H. D. (2001). Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 107:160-164. Background: It has been proposed that exposure to long-term spaceflight conditions (stress, isolation, sleep disruption, containment, microbial contamination, and solar radiation) or to ground-based models of spaceflight will alter human immune responses, but specific antibody responses have not been fully evaluated. Objective: We sought to determine whether exposure to the 8-month Antarctic winter-over model of spaceflight would alter human antibody responses. Methods: During the 1999 Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions, 11 adult study subjects at Casey, Antarctica, and 7 control subjects at Macquarie Island, sub-Antarctica, received primary and secondary immunizations with the T cell-dependent neoantigen bacteriophage variant phiX-174. Periodic plasma samples were analyzed for specific antibody function. Results: All of the subjects from Casey, Antarctica, cleared bacteriophage variant phiX-174 normally by 1 week after primary immunization, and all had normal primary and secondary antibody responses, including immunologic memory amplification and switch from IgM to IgG antibody production. One subject showed a high normal pattern, and one subject had a low normal pattern. The control subjects from Macquarie Island also had normal immune responses to bacteriophage variant phiX-174. Conclusions: These data do not support the hypothesis that de novo specific antibody responses of subjects become defective during the conditions of the Antarctic winter-over. Because the Antarctic winter-over model of spaceflight lacks the important factors of microgravity and solar radiation, caution must be used in interpreting these data to anticipate normal antibody responses in long-term spaceflight

  8. Rapid coliphage detection assay. Stanek, J. E., Falkinham, J. O., III (2001). Journal of Virological Methods 91:93-98. A rapid coliphage detection assay was developed, based on the phage-induced release of beta-galactosidase from cells of Escherichia coli. The assay could detect as few as five coliphage per sample without an overnight incubation period. The range of acceptable assay parameters was identified

  9. Predation in the presence of decoys: An inhibitory factor on pathogen control by bacteriophages or bdellovibrios in dense and diverse ecosystems. Wilkinson, M. H. F. (2001). Journal of Theoretical Biology 208:27-36. Several attempts have been made at the removal of specific pathogens from the intestinal microflora using either bacteriophages or "predatory" bacteria such as Bdellovibrio spp. To date these attempts have had mixed success. A mechanism explaining these findings based on competitive hindrance by non-prey, or decoy species is put forward. It is shown that this hindrance tends to damp out predator-prey oscillations, and therefore reduces the probability of prey extinction. Possible experiments to verify this theory are discussed. The decoy effect may play a role in any system with high densities of bacteria or other particulate matter, such as activated sludge or biofilms

  10. The evolution of pathogen-host interactions mediated by bacteriophages. Ai, Y.-C., Meng, F., Zeng, Y. (2000). Acta Microbiologica Sinica 40:657-661.

  11. Phage resistance in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains isolated from traditional fermented milk products in Turkey. Akcelik, M., Sanlibaba, P., Tükel, C. (2000). International Journal of Food Science & Technology 35:473-481. Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains isolated from traditional fermented milk products in Turkey were used to determine their phage resistance against three different lactic phages. The following modes of action were examined: phage adsorption inhibition in five strains, abortive infection (heat sensitive phage resistance) in three strains, restriction/modification in four strains and blocking of phage DNA injection in one strain. The genetic nature of the phage resistance systems in these strains was determined by comparison of phage proliferation parameters, e.g. adsorption (%), EOP, burst size, latent period and production of major capsid protein, between wild-type strains and their plasmid-cured derivatives

  12. The presence of viruses and bacteria along the Adriatic Coast. Aulicino, F. A., Ammazzalorso, P., Ercolessi, M., Banini, L., Silverii, G., Orsini, P., Mastrantonio, A., Bellucci, C., Carere, M. (2000). Igiene Moderna 113:99-116. A study was carried out on seawater samples, collected from the Adriatic sea near the coast of Pesaro, to determine the presence of enteric viruses and Escherichia coli bacteriophages besides the common indicators of fecal pollution and of trophic conditions of the marine environment (Pseudomonas, Vibrio, algae). During 1994-95, seawater samples were tested in 8 stations located in seaside resorts; in 1994 samples of sediment were also analyzed. Generally the results showed a good situation from the microbiological and eutrophic point of view. Only 2 stations showed fecal pollution. Enteroviruses were not detected while Reovirus was isolated from samples of the two most contaminated stations and from a not polluted area

  13. Evolvability of an RNA virus is determined by its mutational neighbourhood. Burch, C. L., Chao, L. (2000). Nature (London) 406:625-628. The ubiquity of mechanisms that generate genetic variation has spurred arguments that evolvability, the ability to generate adaptive variation, has itself evolved in response to natural selection. The high mutation rate of RNA viruses is postulated to be an adaptation for evolvability, but the paradox is that whereas some RNA viruses evolve at high rates, others are highly stable. Here we show that evolvability in the RNA bacteriophage phi6 is also determined by the accessibility of advantageous genotypes within the mutational neighbourhood (the set of mutants one or a few mutational steps away). We found that two phi6 populations that were derived from a single ancestral phage repeatedly evolved at different rates and toward different fitness maxima. Fitness measurements of individual phages showed that the fitness distribution of mutants differed between the two populations. Whereas population A, which evolved toward a higher maximum, had a distribution that contained many advantageous mutants, population B, which evolved toward a lower maximum, had a distribution that contained only deleterious mutants. We interpret these distributions to measure the fitness effects of genotypes that are mutationally available to the two populations. Thus, the evolvability of phi6 is constrained by the distribution of its mutational neighbours, despite the fact that this phage has the characteristic high mutation rate of RNA viruses

  14. Inactivation of indicator microorganisms in estuarine waters. Burkhardt, W., III, Calci, K. R., Watkins, W. D., Rippey, S. R., Chirtel, S. J. (2000). Water Research 34:2207-2214. In the United States, shellfish growing areas are classified, in part, using standards based on the densities of either the total or fecal coliform groups in surface waters. However, the standards currently employed may not reliably index the presence of certain enteric pathogens, particularly enteric viruses responsible for human illnesses, even though both the pathogens and indicators derive from the same fecal contamination. To some extent, this may be due to differences in the survival of these pathogens in the environment relative to that of the bacterial indicators. This investigation was conducted to assess the effects of temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, geographic location, season, and solar radiation on the survival of selected indicator microorganisms in estuarine waters. The indicators examined included fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, and male-specific bacteriophage (MSB), a potential indicator of enteric viruses. In situ experiments were performed in estuarine waters of Alabama and Rhode Island. Among the parameters examined, sunlight and/or temperature most significantly affected indicator decay rates. In general, the effects from exposure to sunlight accounted for up to 83, 84, and 99% of the density reductions of MSB, C. perfringens and fecal coliforms, respectively. Thus, the effects from sunlight were greatest on fecal coliforms and much less pronounced on MSB and C. perfringens. For fecal coliforms, the effect of sunlight was more pronounced during the winter than the summer. In the absence of sunlight, the rate of MSB decline was strongly negatively correlated with estuarine water temperatures and dissolved oxygen. Overall, fecal coliform decay rates were dissimilar to those found for MSB. From this, it would appear that fecal coliforms may not be reliable indicators of viruses in estuarine waters

  15. Large-plaque mutants of Sindbis virus show reduced binding to heparan sulfate, heightened viremia, and slower clearance from the circulation. Byrnes, A. P., Griess, G. A. (2000). Journal of Virology 74:644-651. Laboratory strains of Sindbis virus must bind to the negatively charged glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate in order to efficiently infect cultured cells. During infection of mice, however, we have frequently observed the development of large-plaque viral mutants with a reduced ability to bind to heparan sulfate. Sequencing of these mutants revealed changes of positively charged amino acids in putative heparin-binding domains of the E2 glycoprotein. Recombinant viruses were constructed with these changes as single amino acid substitutions in a strain Toto 1101 background. All exhibited decreased binding to heparan sulfate and had larger plaques than Toto 1101. When injected subcutaneously into neonatal mice, large-plaque viruses produced higher-titer viremia and often caused higher mortality. Because circulating heparin-binding proteins are known to be rapidly sequestered by tissue heparan sulfate, we measured the kinetics of viral clearance following intravenous injection. Much of the parental small-plaque Toto 1101 strain of Sindbis virus was cleared from the circulation by the liver within minutes, in contrast to recombinant large-plaque viruses, which had longer circulating half-lives. These findings indicate that a decreased ability to bind to heparan sulfate allows more efficient viral production in vivo, which may in turn lead to increased mortality. Because Sindbis virus is only one of a growing number of viruses from many families which have been shown to bind to heparan sulfate, these results may be generally applicable to the pathogenesis of such viruses

  16. Isolation of a virulent bacteriophage from a Propionibacterium species in the sheep rumen. Cheong, J. P. E., Brooker, J. D. (2000). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 51:119-123. Propionibacterium is a facultative anaerobe associated with the rumen epithelium, the presence of which may influence the anaerobic environment through oxygen scavenging, as well as providing a source of propionate. Factors such as bacteriophages that influence Propionibacterium populations may therefore be important regulators of rumen function. This study describes the isolation and identification of a ruminal Propionibacterium bacteriophage. Sheep rumen fluid was screened for Propionibacterium species and 3 isolates were identified and characterised. One isolate, PA1, was used as an indicator strain to screen for the presence of Propionibacterium-specific virulent bacteriophages. A virulent bacteriophage, PB2, was isolated from clear plaques on a lawn of PA1 cells and was shown by transmission electron microscopy to be a siphovirus-like particle comprising an icosahedral head 50 nm in diameter and a tail 140 nm in length. The bacteriophage was visibly attached to and within PA1 cells, and was shown to infect all 3 ruminal isolates of Propionibacterium and 4 of 6 clinical isolates of P. acnes. Restriction mapping of bacteriophage PB2 demonstrated a 30.8 kb genome

  17. Effect of deleterious mutation-accumulation on the fitness of RNA bacteriophage MS2. de la Pena, M., Elena, S. F., Moya, A. (2000). Evolution 54:686-691. RNA viruses show the highest mutation rate in nautre. It has been extensively demonstrated that, in the absence of purifying selection, RNA viruses accumulate deleterious mutations at a high rate. However, the parameters describing this accumulation are, in general, poorly understood. The present study reports evidences for fitness declines by the accumulation of deleterious mutations in the bacteriophage MS2. We estimated the rate of fitness decline to be as high as 16% per bottleneck transfer. In addition, our results agree with an additive model of fitness effects

  18. Present and potential applications of genetic engineering in agronomy and agro-food. Desmazeaud, M. (2000). Comptes Rendus de l'Academie d'Agriculture de France 86:97-102. In agronomy, genetically engineered Rhizobium can improve plant growth. In the case of food productions, a bakery yeast was modified for increasing maltose utilization. Brewery and wine yeasts were modified for better properties than wild strains about alcohol or pH or sulfite resistance. New flavor profiles are obtained also: Kluyveromyces lactis can produce chymosin A used in cheese-making; lactic acid bacteria (mainly Lactococcus lactis) are modified for a controlled action during cheese ripening; genetic engineering can produce bacteriophage resistant strains

  19. Pathogenicity islands and phage conversion: Evolutionary aspects of bacterial pathogenesis. Dobrindt, U., Reidl, J. (2000). IJMM International Journal of Medical Microbiology 290:519-527. Horizontal gene transfer plays a key role in the generation of novel bacterial pathogens. Besides plasmids and bacteriophages, large genomic regions termed pathogenicity islands (PAIs) can be transferred horizontally. All three mechanisms for DNA exchange or transfer may be important for the evolution of bacterial pathogens

  20. Control of bacterial spot on tomato in the greenhouse and field with h-mutant bacteriophages. Flaherty, J. E., Jones, J. B., Harbaugh, B. K., Somodi, G. C., Jackson, L. E. (2000). Hortscience 35:882-884. A mixture of host-range mutant (h-mutant) bacteriophages specific for tomato race 1 (T1) and race 3 (T3) of the bacterial spot pathogen, Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria (Doidge) Dye was evaluated for biological control of bacterial spot on 'Sunbeam' tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) transplants and field-grown plants for two seasons (Fall 1997 and Fall 1998). Foliar applications of bacteriophages were compared with similar applications of water (control) and of copper/mancozeb bactericides, the commonly used chemical control strategy for tomato seedling and field production. In 1997, the incidence of bacterial spot on greenhouse-grown seedlings was reduced from 40.5% (control) to 5.5% or 0.9% for bactericide- or bacteriophage-treated plants, respectively. In 1998, the incidence of bacterial spot was 17.4% on control plants vs. 5.5% and 2.7% for bactericide- and bacteriophage-treated plants, respectively, although these differences were not statistically significant at P ltoreq 0.05. Applications of bacteriophages to field-grown tomatoes decreased disease severity as measured by the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) by 17.5% (1997) and 16.8% (1998) compared with untreated control plants. Preharvest plant vigor ratings, taken twice during each field season, were higher in the bacteriophage-treated plants than in either bactericide-treated plants or nontreated controls except for the early vigor rating in 1998. Use of bacteriophages increased total weight of extra-large fruit 14.9% (1997) and 24.2% (1998) relative to that of nontreated control plants, and 37.8% (1997) and 23.9% (1998) relative to that of plants treated with the chemical bactericides. Chemical names used: manganese, zinc, carboxy-ethylene his dithiocarbamate (mancozeb)

  21. The origins and ongoing evolution of viruses. Hendrix, R. W., Lawrence, J. G., Hatfull, G. F., Casjens, S. (2000). Trends in Microbiology 8:504-508. Genome analyses of double strand DNA tailed bacteriophages argue that they evolve by recombinational reassortment of genes and by the acquisition of novel genes as simple genetic elements termed morons. These processes suggest a model for early virus evolution, wherein viruses can be regarded less as having derived from cells and more as being partners in their mutual co-evolution.

  22. Phage infection of the obligate intracellular bacterium, Chlamydia psittaci strain Guinea Pig Inclusion Conjunctivitis. Hsia, R. C., Ohayon, H., Gounon, P., Dautry-Varsat, A., Bavoil, P. M. (2000). Microbes and Infection 2:761-772. The infectious cycle of phiCPG1, a bacteriophage that infects the obligate intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia psittaci strain Guinea Pig Inclusion Conjunctivitis, was observed using transmission electron microscopy of phage-hyperinfected, Chlamydia-infected HeLa cells. Phage attachment to extracellular, metabolically dormant, infectious elementary bodies and cointernalisation are demonstrated. Following entry, phage infection takes place as soon as elementary bodies differentiate into metabolically active reticulate bodies. Phage-infected bacteria follow an altered developmental path whereby cell division is inhibited, producing abnormally large reticulate bodies, termed maxi-reticulate bodies, which do not mature to elementary bodies. These forms eventually lyse late in the chlamydial developmental cycle, releasing abundant phage progeny in the inclusion and, upon lysis of the inclusion membrane, into the cytosol of the host cell. Structural integrity of the hyperinfected HeLa cell is markedly compromised at late stages. Released phage particles attach avidly to the outer leaflet of the outer membranes of lysed and unlysed Chlamydiae at different stages of development, suggesting the presence of specific phage receptors in the outer membrane uniformly during the chlamydial developmental cycle. A mechanism for phage infection is proposed, whereby phage gains access to replicating chlamydiae by attaching to the infectious elementary body, subsequently subverting the chlamydial developmental cycle to its own replicative needs. The implications of phage infection in the context of chlamydial infection and disease are discussed

  23. Control of the eel (Anguilla japonica) pathogens, Aeromonas hydrophila and Edwardsiella tarda, by bacteriophages. Hsu, C. H., Lo, C. Y., Liu, J. K., Lin, C. S. (2000). Journal of the Fisheries Society of Taiwan 27:21-31. Aeromonas hydrophila and Edwardsiella tarda are the two major pathogens of the eel, Anguilla japonica. The prevalent method to control the diseases is antibiotics. Long term and large scale application of the drugs results in resistance which makes disease control difficult. In the nature, bacteriophages are an important factor in controling bacterial population. The purpose of this research is to study the capability of the phages to control the pathogens in pond water. Several bacteriophages of A. hydrophila and E. tarda were isolated from the water samples of southern Taiwan. In pure culture, the phages could reduce the host 3 orders of magnitude in 2 hr when the multiplicity of infection (moi) was above 11.5 at 25ºC. In the pond water with added A. hydrophila to 6 X 105 / ml, the number dropped 250 folds at phage moi of 0.23 in 8 hr with accompanying phage multiplication to the level of 106 PFU/ml in the water. Most (85%) of the surviving hosts were still vulnerable to the phage. The resistant strains (15%) appeared to be lysogens since the culture broth of the strains could form phage plaques on A. hydrophila. In the case of E. tarda, the bacteria subsided rapidly even in the absence of phage in 48 hr in the pond water

  24. Temperature influences induction of a J7W-1-related phage in Bacillus thuringiensis serovar indiana. Kanda, K., Kayashima, T., Kato, F., Murata, A. (2000). Acta Virologica 44:183-187. Induction of a plasmid-integrative J7W-1-related phage in Bacillus thuringiensis serovar indiana by ethidium bromide was influenced by the temperature at which the host cells were cultured. Under optimal growth conditions, the maximum titer of the phage produced by the serovar indiana reached 1.2 X 106 PFU/ml at 37ºC while at 27ºC it was lower by an order of magnitude (1.3 X 105 PFU/ml). The temperature-sensitive period was estimated to occur early during the phage induction. However, the temperature effect observed with the serovar indiana did not occur with the serovar israelensis. In the latter case, the phage induction was the same at 37ºC or 27ºC. Thus we assume that the temperature sensitive phage induction observed with the serovar indiana as host was not a phenomenon caused by the phage genome but rather by product(s) encoded by certain host gene(s)

  25. Mating in Bacillus thuringiensis can induce plasmid integrative prophage J7W-1. Kanda, K., Takada, Y., Kawasaki, F., Kato, F., Murata, A. (2000). Acta Virologica 44:189-193. Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis, a bacterium which possesses plasmid transfer ability after mating, has been lysogenized by plasmid integrative phage J7W-1. The induction of phage in this J7W-1 lysogen was observed after mating with phage-insensitive strains, such as B. thuringiensis serovar thuringiensis, B. cereus and B. subtilis, as well as the phage-sensitive strain serovar israelensis. The phage induction was not observed after mating with B. thuringiensis strains AF101, serovar dendrolimus and serovar indiana. Because these strains are naturally associated with J7W-1 or its related phage, the data strongly suggest a constitutive expression of the repressor encoded by the prophage in these strains. However, the phage induction was observed in B. thuringiensis serovar aizawai, although it contained the J7W-1 DNA homologous region(s)

  26. Rapid titration of multiple samples of filamentous bacteriophage (M13) on nitrocellulose filters. Koch, J., Breitling, F., Duebel, S. (2000). BioTechniques 29:1196-1202.

  27. Inactivation of coliphages by chitosan derivatives. Kochkina, Z. M., Surgucheva, N. A., Chirkov, S. N. (2000). Mikrobiologiya 69:261-265. The effect of chitosan fragments with different degrees of polymerization and the chemical derivatives of chitosan differing in the number of amino groups and total molecule charge on phages T2, T4, and T7 was studied. The interaction of chitosan with bacteriophage particles inactivated them to the extent dependent on the chemical properties of chitosan and its concentration. Phage T2 was found to be most susceptible to inactivation by chitosan. The polycationic nature of chitosan plays an important role in the inactivation of phages. It is assumed that the abnonnal rearrangement of the basal plate of phages, the loss of long tail fibers, and, probably, modification of the receptor-recognizing phage proteins may be responsible for the inactivation of coliphages by chitosan

  28. Effect of simulated gastric fluid and bile on survival of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio vulnificus phage. Koo, J., Depaola, A., Marshall, D. L. (2000). Journal of Food Protection 63:1665-1669. Bacteria and phages may be exposed to acid conditions in the stomach and to bile in the intestine. Survival of three strains of Vibrio vulnificus and three strains of its phages was examined at 37ºC after exposure to simulated gastric fluid at pH 3 to 4 or to 0, 1, and 2% bile in broth or buffer. Mean D-values (decimal reduction times) at pH 4 and 3 were 3.3 and 1.3 min for V. vulnificus and 97.8 and 0.7 min for its phages. No V. vulnificus survivors were found at pH 2.0. There were few survival differences among strains of V. vulnificus or its phages. Numbers of V. vulnificus increased 1 log in tryptic soy broth containing 1 or 2% bile after 3 h. Numbers of V. vulnificus and its phages remained constant in phosphate-buffered saline regardless of bile concentrations up to 3 h. Those V. vulnificus bacteria and phages that survive stomach acidity may proliferate in the small intestine, since they are resistant to bile

  29. High-frequency interconversion of turbid and clear plaque strains of bacteriophage f1 and associated host cell death. Kuo, M. Y., Yang, M. K., Chen, W. P., Kuo, T. T. (2000). Canadian Journal of Microbiology 46:841-847. Under normal cultivation conditions, a mixture of turbid and clear plaques is often apparent in cultures of bacterial cells infected with filamentous bacteriophages. Beginning with a culture of wild-type filamentous phage f1, which itself produces turbid plaques, a clear plaque strain (c1) was isolated. From c1, the turbid plaque strain t1 was isolated; from t1, the clear plaque strain c2 was isolated; and from c2, the turbid plaque strain t2 was isolated. Each of these strains was generated with a frequency of approximately 1 X 10-4. Although filamentous phages have been thought not to induce host cell death, both turbid and clear plaque strains of f1 killed host bacteria. Plating of bacterial cells 1 h after infection revealed that colonies produced by cells infected with either wild-type f1 or strain c2 were smaller than those derived from uninfected cells, and that colony formation by infected cells was reduced by 15% and 38%, respectively. The time course of bacterial growth revealed that, at 4 h after infection, the number of CFU per milliliter of culture of cells infected with wild-type f1 or with strain c2 was reduced by 27% and 95%, respectively, compared with that for uninfected cells. Microculture analysis also revealed that the percentages of nondividing cells in f1 or c2 infected were 19% and 52%, respectively, 4 h after infection with wild-type f1 or with strain c2; no such cells were detected in cultures of uninfected cells. Negative staining and electron microscopy showed that 20% and 61% of cells infected with wild-type f1 or with strain c2 were dead 4 h postinfection. Finally, although the rates of DNA synthesis were similar for infected and uninfected cells, the rates of RNA and protein synthesis were markedly reduced in infected cells

  30. Yersinia pestis variants, resistant to diagnostic bacteriophage, and problems connected with them. Lebedeva, S. A. (2000). Zhurnal Mikrobiologii Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii 99-104. The data of literature on the pleiotropic variability of the resistance of Y.pestis mutants to diagnostic phage are presented. The conditions of reversion to the initial phenotype are characterized. The mechanisms of the appearance of such variability of Y.pestis, as well as problems arising in connection with this variability and linked with the pathogenic activity of Y.pestis, low effectiveness of the diagnostic methods used in the inspection of the natural foci of plaque, the reservation of microbes in nature during the periods between epidemics, are discussed

  31. Broad-range bacteriophage resistance in Streptococcus thermophilus by insertional mutagenesis. Lucchini, S., Sidoti, J., Brussow, H. (2000). Virology 275:267-277. Streptococcus thermophilus is a lactic acid bacterium used in industrial milk fermentation. To obtain phage-resistant starters, S. thermophilus strain Sfi1 was submitted to mutagenesis with the thermolabile insertional vector pG+host9:ISS1 followed by a challenge with the lytic S. thermophilus phage Sfi19. Vector insertions into four distinct sites led to a phage-resistance phenotype. Three mutants were characterized further. They were protected against the homologous challenging phage and 14 heterologous phages. All three mutants adsorbed phages. No intracellular phage DNA synthesis was observed in mutants R7 and R71, while mutant R24 showed a delayed and diminished phage DNA synthesis compared to the parental Sfi1 strain. In mutant R7 a short deletion occurred next to the insertion site which removed the upstream sequences and the 15 initial codons from orf 394, encoding a likely transmembrane protein. Analogy with other phage systems suggests an involvement of this protein in the phage DNA injection process. In mutant R24 th